Thomson

Purpose of reviewTo inform about the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) of different hormonal contraceptives in differentpatient groups.
Recent findingsCombined oral contraceptives (COCs) differ significantly regarding VTE risk depending on amount ofestrogen and type of progestogen: COCs containing desogestrol, gestoden or drospirenone incombination with ethinylestradiol (so called third-generation or fourth-generation COCs) are associatedwith a higher VTE risk than COCs with ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel or norethisterone (so calledsecond-generation COCs). The VTE risk for transdermal COCs like vaginal ring (NuvaRing) or patch (Evra)is as high as for COCs of third or fourth generation. Progestogen-only contraceptive methods do notincrease VTE risk significantly. New kinds of COC without ethinylestradiol but with estradiol valerat orestradiol showed a much lower degree of coagulation activation than ‘classical’ COC containingethinylestradiol.
SummarySecond-generation COCs should be the first choice when prescribing hormonal contraception.
In patients with a history of VTE and/or a known thrombophilic defect, COCs are contraindicated, butprogestogen-only contraceptives can be safely used in this patient group. Whether newer COCs withestradiol valerate or estradiol have a lower VTE risk remains to be elucidated.
Keywordscombined oral contraceptives, estradiovalerat, progestogen-only contraceptive, thrombophilia,venous thromboembolism health problem in the European Union (EU), with over one million VTE events and around 220 000 Many risk factors beside contraception contribute VTE-related deaths per annum (Cohen et al. to VTE in women of reproductive age and they are Hormonal contraception methods of first choice are combined oral contraceptives (COCs). Theadvantage is the contraceptive safety, its easy (1) less than 40 years: annual risk 1 in 10 000 use and a beneficial effect on acne and hyper- (most likely underestimated, high rate of menorrhagia or dysmenorrhagia. About 60% of all women between 16–30 years in industrialized countries like EU use COCs, which usually contain (3) more than 80 years: annual risk 1 in 100 ethinylestradiol and a progestogen (german guide-line Women of reproductive age, who usecontraceptive methods with ethinylestradiol, are at a six to eight times higher risk for VTE than nonusers depending on the kind of contraceptive used. VTE is often clinically silent, and therefore is often undiagnosed especially in younger women Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2012, 24:235–240 1040-872X ß 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Nonusers of COCs have an incidence of VTE  COCs differ significantly regarding VTE risk depending of about five to 10 in 100 000. Overall hazard ratio on amount of estrogen and type of progestogen.
for thromboembolism and COC use in all women  COCs of the third and fourth generation have a is 2–6 but much higher in thrombophilic remarkably higher VTE risk than COCs of the second women and depending on whether the patient generation; therefore, COCs of the second generation has a single or combined thrombophilic defect should be prescribed as the first choice. COCs are contraindicated in patients with a history of VTE [andshould also be restricted in patients with known The risk of VTE is the highest in the first year of thrombophilia, especially in patients with a hereditary use of COCs and higher in first-time users of deficiency of anticoagulants (protein C, protein S and The risk of VTE turns out to be lower after 1 year of use, but remains higher than in nonusers.
 Progestogen-only contraceptives can safely be used in patients with history of VTE/thrombophilia.
Eight to 12 weeks after cessation of COCs, the VTE risk turns to normal. Therefore, it is  New COCs with estradiol valerat or estradiol instead not recommended to stop COCs before planned of ethinylestradiol may have a lower risk of VTE than surgery. Instead COC users should receive a pharmacological thromboprophylaxis after surgery (4) obesity: three-fold VTE risk for BMI greater (6) genetic thrombophilia, for example, factor V (7) immobility: surgery, trauma, prolonged travel The VTE risk of COCs is highly dependent on the content of estrogen and the type of progestogen Table 1. Risk of venous thrombosis in different thrombophilias with and without use of combined oral Prothrombin G20210A mutation, heterozygous Prothrombin G20210A mutation heterozygous and factor V Leiden mutation heterozygous Antiphospholipid antibodies (lupus anticoagulants, anticardiolipin antibodies, antib 2-glycoprotein I AT, antithrombin; OR, odds ratio. Adapted from Thrombotic risks of oral contraceptives Rott (1) levonorgestrel or noresthisterone are called Table 2. Effects an haemostatic balance for combined oral contraceptive and progestogen-only (2) gestoden or desogestrel are called COC of dienogest are called antiandrogenic COC, see The use of COC containing levonorgestrel is associated with an almost four-fold increased risk [odds ratio (OR) 3 and 6] relative to nonusers, whereas the risk of VTE compared with nonuserswas increased 5.6-fold for gestodene, 7.3-fold for BP, blood pressure; COC, combined oral contraceptive.
desogestrel, 6.8-fold for cyproterone acetate and6.3-fold for drospirenone Antiandrogenic COCs have a four-fold risk for VTE compared with levonorgestrel-containing used in COCs, and therefore significantly differs COCs. These COCs, therefore, seem to have the Ethinylestradiol and progestogens have totally A crossover study showed that the fibrinolytic different effects on hemostasis. Ethinylestradiol acts potential is decreased in users of COCs, but as a hemostatic activator: procoagulants increase more pronounced in users of desogestrel-containing and anticoagulants, especially protein S, decrease COCs compared with levonorgestrel-containing COCs Furthermore, the increase in activity of Intake of progestogens alone in contrast leads to some coagulation factors is higher in desogestrel- an increase in protein S and fibrinolytic potency, see containing COCs compared with levonorgestrel- Table 3. Classification of combined oral contraceptive COC, combined oral contraceptive; EE, ethinylestradiol; IUS, intrauterine system.
1040-872X ß 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins One new COC contains estradiol valerat instead confidence interval (CI) 0.76–3.99] and for women of ethinylestradiol and dienogest. A study showed a using progestogen-only injectables (OR 2.19, 95% less pronounced effect on hemostatic activation CI 0.66–7.26). Although limited by small numbers, markers like D-dimer and prothrombin fragment the data suggest that there is little or no increase in and only a minimal impact on metabolic parameters risk of VTE associated with use of oral or injectable like HDL-cholesterol compared with COCs contain- study, injectable depot medroxyprogesterone acetate The second new COC contains estradiol instead (MPA) contraceptives were associated with a 3.6-fold of ethinylestradiol. Estradiol has been used in (95% CI, 1.8-fold–7.1-fold) increased risk of venous hormonal replacement therapy for many years thrombosis compared with nonusers of hormonal and is known as an estrogen with a much lower contraceptives Thus, whether injectable depot VTE risk than ethinylestradiol. It is combined with MPA contraceptives might be associated with a small the progestogen nomegestrol. This combination increase of thrombotic risk is still a matter of debate.
has less influence on hemostasis, as well as lipids There now exists a new subcutaneous injectable and carbohydrate metabolism compared with COCs depot MPA contraceptive with only two-thirds of with ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel the dose of the intramuscular form. It is still not clear It is not known whether these changes of estro- whether this lower dose of MPA decreases the risk gen type lead to real changes in thrombotic risk.
of VTE. Also, no data regarding VTE risk exist fornorethisterone enantat (Noristerat), another inject-able POC.
A postmarketing study evaluated the safety of levonorgestrel-only implants in developing The transdermal contraceptive patch and the vagi- countries It included 7977 women with over nal contraceptive ring both contain ethinylestradiol 95% completing 5 years of follow-up. Only one and progestogen. There is some evidence that the levonorgestrel-only implant user developed a DVT thrombotic risk while using ethinylestradiol is not and no increase in mortality was identified. No data dependent on the route of administration. Even were identified regarding the etonorgestrel-only transvaginal and transdermal use of ethinylestradiol implant (Implanon). Further evidence supporting leads to an activation of the homeostatic system no increased risk of VTE with POC is provided by and to a thrombotic risk similar to COCs a 1999 case–control study (adjusted RR 1.3, 95% CI Both transdermal contraceptive methods, therefore, are contraindicated in patients with a history of VTE There seems to be no increased risk of VTE for the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system(Mirena) Although COCs containing desogestrel have been found to have an increased risk of VTE com- pared with those containing levonorgestrel or nor- ethisterone, the desogestrel-only pill cerazette has There is no evidence for activation of the homeo- not been associated with an increased risk. However, static system by progestogen-only contraceptive data are limited. A randomized, controlled, double- blind trial of desogestrel-only and levonorgestrel- Few studies have been large enough to quantify only pills did not identify any clinically significant the risk of VTE associated with the use of progestogen-only contraception. A hospital-based, Preparations approved for emergency contra- case–control study by WHO in Africa, Asia, Europe ception (so-called postcoital pills) are not associated and Latin America evaluated the risks of cardio- with an increase in VTE: 750 mg levonorgestrel vascular disease with the use of oral and injectable (Levogynon) or 30 mg ulipristal acetate (ellaone).
POC. A total of 1137 women with VTE and 9997 Both preparations are not associated with an control patients were recruited. Cases and controls increase in VTE, and therefore can be used safely were matched for age, BMI and live births. Cases were more likely to have other cardiovascularrisk factors (hypertension, diabetes or rheumaticheart disease) or to be smokers. No significant increase in OR for VTE was identified with the use of any progestogen-only method. The OR High-dose progestogens for therapeutic indications for progestogen-only pill users was 1.74 [95% like menorrhagia appear to be associated with an Thrombotic risks of oral contraceptives Rott Table 4. WHO medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use 2008 1, a condition for which there is no restriction for the use of the contraceptive method; 2, a condition where the advantages of using the method generallyoutweigh the theoretical or proven risks; 3, a condition where the theoretical or proven risks usually outweigh the advantage of using the method; 4, a conditionwhich represents an unacceptable health risk if the contraceptive method is used. COC, combined oral contraceptive. Adapted from increased risk of VTE (adjusted RR 5.3, 95% CI 1.5– contraceptive methods with ethinylestradiol is 18.7). Reanalysis of data from the WHO Collabora- contraindicated. On the other hand, there is an even tive Study also showed an increase in VTE risk higher risk for VTE in pregnancy and the post- with therapeutic progestogens (OR 5.92, 95% CI partum period. For this reason, an adequate alterna- 1.16–30.1), but small numbers have resulted in wide tive contraception must be offered to these patients.
contraception generally in adolescents with throm-bophilia. Estrogen-free, progestogen-only contra- ception methods are safe regarding VTE risk.
The following contraceptives, therefore, can be used in thrombophilic adolescents (see also The VTE risk in pregnancy and the postpartum period progestogen-only pills, like Cerazette , 28 mini is much higher than during use of any COC. The overall VTE risk in women with no thrombophilicdefect, a single or combined defect is 0.73 (0.30– (1) intrauterine copper device or intrauterine 1.51), 1.97 (0.94–3.63) and 7.65 (3.08–15.76) per 100 person-years. The risk is highest in the post- partum period with a hazard ratio of 16.0 (8.0–32.2) per 100 person-years. Even the a priori absolute risk (4) MPA injectables [lower dose should be preferred of VTE during pregnancy-postpartum in women without any thrombophilic defect is higher than Several different COCs exist that differ significantly regarding the VTE risk but show no difference COCs with levonorgestrel or noretisterone (so called second-generation COCs) should be first choice as recommended in the national guidelines for contraception in the Netherlands, Belgium, Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of review, have Denmark, Norway and the UK. Other European countries lack such guidelines, but they are urgently Additional references related to this topic can also be found in the CurrentWorld Literature section in this issue (pp. 267–268).
There is no clear advantage in prescribing COCs with higher VTE risk containing desogestrel 1. Cohen AT, Agnelli G, Anderson FA, et al. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in Europe The number of VTE events and associated morbidity and mortality.
In women with a history of VTE and/or known 2. German guideline ‘Contraception’. Deutsche Gesellschaft fu¨r Gyna¨kologie und Geburtshilfe. 2008. http://www.awmf.org/uploads/tx_szleitlinien/015- thrombophilic defects, the use of COCs and other 1040-872X ß 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 3. Rabe T, Luxembourg B, Ludwig M, et al. ‘Contraception and Thrombophilia: 15. Junge W, Mellinger U, Parke S, et al. Metabolic and haemostatic effects a statement from the German Society for Gynecological Endocrinology and of estradiol valerate/dienogest, a novel oral contraceptive: a randomized, Reproductive Medicine (DGGEF e.V.) and the Professional Association of open-label, single-centre study. Clin Drug Investig 2011; 31:573–584.
German Gynaecologists (BVF e.V.). J Reproduktionsmed Endokrinol 2011; 16. A˚gren UM, Anttila M, Ma¨enpa¨a¨-Liukko K, et al. Effects of a monophasic combined oral contraceptive containing nomegestrol acetate and 17b- A complete overview regarding all aspects of VTE and contraception for the oestradiol compared with one containing levonorgestrel and ethinylestradiol on haemostasis, lipids and carbohydrate metabolism. Eur J Contracept 4. Vlijmen EFW van, Veeger NJGM, Middeldorp S, et al. Thrombotic risk during Reprod Health Care 2011; 16:444–457.
oral contraceptive use and pregnancy in women with factor V Leiden or First data about changes in coagulation for a new kind of COC.
prothrombin mutation: a rational approach to contraception. Blood 2011; 17. Gaussem P, Alhenc-Gelas M, Thomas J-L, et al. Haemostatic effects of a new combined oral contraceptive, nomegestrol acetate/17b-estradiol, compared A very good overview over the VTE risk during COC use and pregnancy in the two with those of levonorgestrel/ethinyl estradiol. A double-blind, randomised most frequent thrombophilias in Europe.
study. Thromb Haemost 2011; 105:560–567.
5. Herings RM, Urquhart J, Leufkens HG. Venous thromboembolism among new 18. Sitruk-Ware R, Plu-Bureau G, Menard J, et al. Effects of oral and users of different oral contraceptives. Lancet 1999; 354:127–128.
transvaginal ethinyl estradiol on hemostatic factors and hepatic proteins in 6. Kemmeren JM, Algra A, Grobbee DE. Third generation orals contraceptives a randomized, crossover study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92:2074– and risk of venous thrombosis: meta-analysis. BMJ 2001; 323:131–134.
7. German S3-guideline: ‘Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism’ 2009: 19. Jick SS, Kaye JA, Russmann S, et al. Risk of nonfatal venous thrombo- http://www.awmf.org/uploads/tx_szleitlinien/003-001l_S3_VTE-Prophylaxe_ embolism in women using a contraceptive transdermal patch and oral contraceptives containing norgestimate and 35 microg of ethinyl estradiol.
8. Barkfeldt J, Virkkunen A, Dieben T. The effects of two progestogen-only pills containing either desogestrel (75 microg/day) or levonorgestrel (30 microg/ 20. World Health Organization. Cardiovascular disease and use of oral and day) on lipid metabolism. Contraception 2001; 64:295–299.
9. Hughes Q, Watson M, Cole V, et al. Upregulation of protein S by progestins.
contraceptives. Contraception 1998; 57:315–324.
J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5:2243–2249.
21. van Hylckama Vlieg JE, Helmerhorst FM, Rosendaal FR. The risk of deep 10. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG). Venous venous thrombosis associated with injectable depot–medroxyprogesterone thromboembolism and hormonal contraception. Guideline No. 40. London: acetate contraceptives or a levonorgestrel intrauterine device. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30:2297–2300.
11. van Vliet HA, Bertina RM, Dahm AE, et al. Different effects of oral 22. Meirik O, Farley TM, Sivin I, for the International Collaborative Postmarketing contraceptives containing different progestogens on protein s and tissue Surveillance of Norplant. Safety and efficacy of levonorgestrel implant, factor pathway inhibitor. J Thromb 2008; 6:346–351.
intrauterine device, and sterilization. Obstet Gynaecol 2001; 97:539– 12. Winkler UH, Howie H, Buhler K, et al. A randomized controlled double-blind study of the effects on hemostasis to two progeston-only pills containing 23. Vasilakis C, Jick H, del Mar Melero-Montes M. Risk of idiopathic venous 75 mg desogestrel or 30 mg levonorgestrel. Contraception 1998; 57:385– thromboembolism in users of progestagens alone. Lancet 1999; 354:1610 – 13. van Hylckama Vlieg A, Helmerhors FM, Vandenbroucke JP, et al. The venous 24. World Health Organization Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease thrombotic risk of oral contraceptives, effects of oestrogen dose and pro- and Steroid Hormone Contraception. A multinational case–control study of gestogen type: results of the MEGA-case control study. BMJ 2009; cardiovascular disease and steroid hormone contraceptives. J Clin Endocrinol 14. Klipping C, Duijkers I, Parke S, et al. Hemostatic effects of a novel estradiol- 25. Poulter NR, Chang CL, Farley TM, Meirik O. Risk of cardiovascular diseases based oral contraceptive: an open-label, randomized, crossover study of associated with oral progestogen preparations with therapeutic indications.
estradiol valerate/dienogest versus ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel. Drugs 26. WHO Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. 2008 update. http:// First data regarding the VTE risk in a new kind of COC.
whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf.

Source: http://www.gerinnungrheinruhr.de/assets/files/Publikationen/Publikationen%202012/2012_07ArtCurrentOpGynRott.pdf

Microsoft word - health information for guatemala travelers (2)

Health Information for Travelers in Guatemala I recommend that pertinent portions of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) website be reviewed. See http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/guatemala. This is excellent material. The following represents my capsule summary of that material. a. Be sure you are in good health; see your personal physician prior to the trip if you have

med9905.no.sapo.pt

Aminoglicosídeos Aminoglicosídeos • Neomicina • Estreptomicina • Gentamicina • Tobramicina • Netelmicina • Amicacina Aminoglicosídeos – Bactericida para inúmeros organismos Gram negativos e Gram positivos e micobactérias;– Úteis em infecções graves por bacilos Gram negativos susceptíveis, especialmente Pseudomonas spp:– Não usar em infec

Copyright © 2018 Medical Abstracts